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第一章Introduction
This chapter deals with two types of knowledge, including knowledge on language and knowledge on linguistics. In the part concerning language, the following questions will be answered: what is language? What are the design features of language? In the part concerning linguistics, we will focus on the explanation of the definition of linguistics, the scopes of language study, and the keys to scientific language study.
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●1.1What is language
In this part, we will focus on the definition of language. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communications.
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●1.2Design Features of Language
In this part we will discuss the design features of language. It is arbitrariness, duality, productivity /creativity, displacement and cultural transmission that make language human-specific.
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●1.3Scopes of Linguistics
The topic for this part is the scopes of linguistics, to put it in other words, what does linguistics study?Linguistics studies properties of speech sounds, combination of speech sounds into a meaningful unit, word formation, sentence structure, meaning of linguistic units, and the use and interpretation of a sentence in different contexts.
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●1.4How to Make Language Study Scientific
In this period, we will talk about how to make our language study scientific. Only by bearing in mind the criteria of exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity, and strictly following the procedure of adequate observation, generating regularity, proposing and revising hypothesis, might it be possible for our study of language be scientific.
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●1.5Key Terms in Linguistics
The focus of this period is the distinction or difference of several pairs of linguistic terms. The following pairs of terms will be in our discussion: prescriptive and descriptive, langue and parole, speech and writing, competence and performance.
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第二章Phonology
Language is first perceived through its sounds. This chapter discusses the differences between phonetics and phonology, how speech sounds are produced and transcribed, the classifications of English vowels and consonants, the notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how they are related, some phonological rules, and also suprasegmental features in a language.
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●2.1Phonetics
Section 1 is further divided into five sub-sections:
2.1.1 “What is Phonetics”: The study of the phonic medium of language is called phonetics.
2.1.2 “Organs of Speech”: The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in the pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity, and the nasal cavity.
2.1.3 “Broad and Narrow Transcriptions”: The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.
2.1.4 “English Consonants”: English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and place of articulation. The two classifications are combined to describe or identify an English consonant.
2.1.5 “English Vowels”: English vowels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. -
●2.2Phonology
Section 2 is further divided into five sub-sections:
2.2.1 “Phone, Phonemes and Allophones”: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment which does not necessarily distinguish meaning. A phoneme, consisting of a set of distinctive features, is a phonological unit which is capable of distinguishing meaning. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
2.2.2 “Phonetic Contrast, Complementary Distribution and Minimal Pair”: Phonetically similar but distinctive phonemes form a phonemic contrast. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. Two different forms which are identical in every way except for one sound segment form a minimal pair.
2.2.3 “Phonological Rules”: The combination of sounds in a particular language is governed by sequential rules, assimilation rule, deletion rule, etc.
2.2.4 and 2.2.5 “Suprasegmental Features”: The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.
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第三章Morphology
In this chapter, we will talk about the morphological structures of English words and analyze the main approaches of word formation. The morphological rules in word formation can contribute to a better understanding of new words derived from the bases. Meanwhile, the discussion will contribute to a deep sight into the internal structure of language.
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●3.1An Introduction to Morphology
In this part, we will focus on some fundamental concepts that are crucially important in our analysis of the internal structure of words. First, we will define morphology. Then we will discuss morpheme, morph and allomorph respectively. Finally a brief summary will be offered.
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●3.2Classification of Morphemes
In this part we will discuss the classification of morphemes. Morphemes, like phonemes to phonology, are abstract concepts that are realized by morphs. The classification of morphemes must be based on their functions. According to their function, morphemes can be classified into several pairs of categories: Free versus bound; Derivational versus inflectional; Lexical versus grammatical.
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●3.3Morphological Rules of Word Formation
In this part a discussion about rules in word formation will be presented. Specifically, we will look into the morphological rules that govern the formation of words in English. The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. We will show that these rules determine how morphemes combine to form words and even shape the meaning of the newly-created words.
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●3.4Main Approaches to English Word-formation
In this period we will put an end to our discussion with morphology by looking into the main approaches to English word-formation. Precisely, we will look into three ways of English word-formation: derivation, compounding and conversion.
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第四章Syntax
In this chapter, we will focus on syntax. Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. In our discussion, a generative approach will be taken and a formal presentation will be favored. We will start from syntactic categories, the smallest unit in formal syntactic analysis, and move on to PRS and X-bar theory. After a brief discussion on the nature of transformation, we will finally concentrate on Movement Analysis.
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●4.1An introduction to Syntax
In this section, we will focus on a brief introduction of syntax. Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. In other words, syntax is the study of how sentences are properly formed out of words of a language. To put it in a simple way, syntax studies how words of a language are combined to form grammatical sentences. Then, some general knowledge about generative syntax and generative grammar is presented.
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●4.2Syntactic Categories
In this part, we will focus on the idea of syntactic categories. Syntactic category is to syntax what phoneme to phonology and morpheme to morphology. It is an abstract concept and can be realized by lexeme or phrases. What kinds of syntactic categories are there in English? How are they realized? In this part, all these question will be discussed and answered.
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●4.3Phrase Structure Rules
In this part a discussion about Phrase Structure Rules will be presented. PSR is the initial step of the whole formal system of generative grammar. It cuts language into various types of phrases, even the sentences are analyzed as phrases. PSR answered the question of how language is generated.
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●4.4X-bar Theory
In this part we will abstract PSR into a more formalized framework, X-bar Theory. X-bar theory unifies the various types of phrases generated by PSR into one syntactic frame, XP. An XP includes three constituents, the specifier, the complement and the head. Finally we will analyze the structural difference between relative clause and appositive clause with X-bar theory to illustrate the practical value of X-bar Theory.
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●4.5The Nature of Transformation
In this part, we will focus on the nature of transformation. Because PSR is incapable of producing all sentences a language requires, transformation gets involved in the process to change the structure of sentences by movement, deletion, addition etc.
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●4.6Phrasal Movement: Wh-movement and NP-movement
In this part, we start a discussion on Movement. Phrasal Movement can be discussed from two types: phrase movement and head movement. As for English, there are two important types of phrase movement: Wh-movement and NP-movement. Wh-movement refers to the transformation responsible for movement of a Wh-phrase to the sentence-initial position. NP- movement is illustrated by passivization and raising structure.
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●4.7Head Movement:Auxiliary Movement and Do-insertion
In this part, we continue the discussion on Movement. There are two important phenomena involved in head movement: auxiliary movement and do-insertion. Auxiliary raising can be generally understood as moving the auxiliary/infl to Complementiser position; do-insertion is to insert do to support an empty auxiliary.
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第五章Semantics
In this chapter, we will discuss the definition of semantics, theory of the semantic triangle, Leech's seven types of meaning, different kinds of meaning, sense relations. Students are expected to recognize sense relations between words and sentences and they are expected to be able to use componential analysis to distinguish synonyms, antonyms and sentence meanings.
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●5.1An Introduction to Semantics
In this period, we will focus on the definition of semantics and the meaning of MEANING. First, we will define semantics. Then we will discuss the meaning of MEANING by introducing some previous views concerning the study of meaning.
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●5.2Sense and Reference
In this period, we will continue our discussion on semantics. First, we will clarify a confusing pair: sense and reference. Then we will briefly introduce the meaning classification from Geoffrey Leech (1974).
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●5.3Major Sense Relations Between Words
In this part, we will continue our discussion on semantics. Precisely, we will look into the major sense relations at the lexical level. As we have mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, SENSE refers to the abstract and decontextualized inherent meaning of a word. And words are in different sense relations with each other.
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●5.4Major Sense Relations Between Sentences
In this period, we will continue our discussion on sense relations. We will have a discussion on the main sense relations between sentences, which includes: 1. X is synonymous with Y. 2. X is inconsistent with Y. 3. X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X). 4. X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X).
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●5.5Analysis of Meaning
In this period, we will try to analyze meaning. We will focus on two kinds of analysis: 1. Componential analysis; 2. Predication analysis.
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第六章Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.
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●6.1Some Basic Notions about Pragmatics
The part introduces some basic notions of pragmatics, the differences between pragmatics and semantics, context, sentence meaning and utterance meaning.
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●6.2Speech Act Theory
This section introduces Speech Act Theory which originated with the British philosopher Austin in the late 1950’s. According to his model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in illocutionary act because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.
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●6.3Searle
This part introduces the classification of illocutionary acts made by the American philosopher-linguist John Searle. Speech acts fall into five general categories. Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.
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●6.4Principle of Conversation
This section introduces the Cooperative Principle proposed by the British philosopher and logician Paul Grice. In making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. There are four maxims under this general principle. Only when they are “flouted” does “conversational implicature” occur.
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第七章Language Change
All languages change through time, but they do so rather slowly. Where languages have written records, it is possible to see the actual changes that have taken place. It has been 1500 years since the “birth” of English. If we examine the changes that have occurred during this period, we can find changes in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.
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●7.1Language Change
Section 1 is further divided into three sub-sections:
7.1.1 “Sound, Morphological and Syntactic Change”: The most dramatic change that English underwent includes the vowel shift. Morphological and syntactic changes have also taken place. They are change in “agreement” rule, change in negation rule, process of simplification, and loss of inflections.
7.1.2 “Vocabulary Change: Addition of New Words”: Vocabulary or lexical includes three types: addition of new words, loss of words, changes in the meaning of words. This period discusses the addition of new words. Besides compounding and derivation, there are seven other methods for the addition of new words: coinage, clipping, blending, acronym, back-formation, functional shift, and borrowing.
7.1.3“Vocabulary Change: Semantic Change and Loss of Words”: There are three processes for semantic change, namely, widening, narrowing, and shift in meaning. Meanwhile, the loss of words takes place gradually over the course of several generations. -
●7.2Some Recent Trends and Causes of Language Change
Section 2 is further divided into two sub-sections:
7.2.1 “Some Recent Trends”: This part attempts a general look at the main changes that have come about in normal English usage. Some recent trends in English language include the following three: First, English language is moving towards greater informality; Second, English language has been greatly influenced by American English; Third, English language has been influenced by science and technology.
7.2.2 “Causes of Language Change”: First, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words. Second, social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with new words and expressions. Third, more neutral job titles have been created. Fourth, the way children acquire a language provides a basic cause of change. Fifth, "economy of memory" results in grammar simplification. Sixth, the desire to be intelligible needs elaboration or complication in language change.
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第八章Language and Society
In this chapter, we will focus on Sociolinguistics. Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies the relationships between society and language, and how languages change under the influence of society. We will start from the definition of sociolinguistics, the relationships between society and language, the varieties of language, and code-switching.
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●8.1 Introduction to Sociolinguistics
In this session, we will focus on a brief introduction of Sociolinguistics. As an important sub-discipline of linguistics, sociolinguistics sprang up in the 1960s, and studies the social nature and the varieties of languages with theories and methods in linguistics and sociology from different perspectives of social science. In sociolinguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure, Bronislaw Malinowski, W. Bright, and William Labov occupy important positions.
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●8.2Varieties of Language
In this part, we will focus on the varieties of language. Occupying significant status in sociolinguistics, varieties of language refer to a language expression/form used by people with the same social characteristic in the same social environment. From all kinds of dialects of one language to a certain lexical, phonetic, or syntactic feature, varieties of language cover almost everything in our society. This part mainly discusses the relationships between language and gender, language and society, as well as the varieties of language.
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●8.3Choosing A Code
In this session, we will focus on questions about codeswitching. Sociolinguists view any language and its varieties as code, which is widely interpreted as voice, vocabularies, grammatical rules, and dialects. The choice of code, from one hand, is the choice of a multilingual society, from the other hand, is the choice of an individual in social communication. This part is mainly about diglossia, bilingualism, and code-switching.
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第九章Language and Culture
In this chapter, we will focus on language and culture. Language and culture, intrinsically dependent on each other, have evolved together through the history. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. In our discussion, we will start from the definition of culture, the correlation between language and culture, and move on to Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. We will then exemplify the cultural differences in language use from seven different perspectives in cross-cultural communication. Finally we will wind up the chapter with illustration of several relevant concepts and the significance of cultural teaching and learning.
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●9.1Introduction
In this section, we will focus on a brief introduction of language and culture. On analysis of some translated sentences from Chinese into English, a consensus can be made that language is not only a tool for communication, but also embodies culture and inherits wisdom. When used in contexts of communication, language is bound up with culture in many and complex ways. It has long been recognized that language is an important part of a given culture. Culture, on the other hand, finds a better representation through language.
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●9.2What is Culture
This section will mainly focus on culture. Two aspects of culture, its definition and classification, will be discussed accordingly. Culture, in a broad sense, means the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture, office culture, food culture, etc. In terms of culture’s content, there are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual. Compared with nature in the sense of what is born and grows with, culture is what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, culture is what can be nurtured.
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●9.3The Relationship Between Language and Culture
In this section, we will focus on the relationship between language and culture. Language and culture are inextricably intertwined, and it is extremely difficult to separate the two. Language, as an important part of a given culture, is an indispensable carrier of culture. It not only expresses but also embodies cultural reality. Meanwhile, culture can find a better representation through language use. A joint study of these two subjects will definitely broaden the horizon of human knowledge in general and enrich the research of these sciences in particular. This correlation highlights the pursuit of the relationship between the two and makes this practice something fascinating and challenging.
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●9.4Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
In this section, we will introduce a very influential but meanwhile extremely controversial theory in the study of the relationship between language and culture: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. This hypothesis is a theory which had a great significance in linguistics the end 20th century, and its core is the interdependence of language and thought. This theoretic assumption suggests that our language helps mold our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express the speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, the hypothesis can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.
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●9.5Meanings of a Linguistic Sign
In this section, we will talk about three types of meanings of a linguistic sign. Any linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative, connotative, or iconic kind of meanings. To begin with, the denotative meaning refers to the meaning that can be found and well explained in a dictionary. Second, the connotative meaning or connotation is the meaning that isn’t stated but implied. Third, the iconic meaning is the image or icon invoked in mind by a word. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural associations or encodings, because the words’ meanings cannot be separated from their associations in the specific culture.
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●9.6Linguistic Evidence of Cultural Differences I
In this section, we will illustrate cultural differences in language use. We will explain from the following perspectives: greetings and terms of address, thanks and compliments, and color words. As learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture, we, as English learners, should be aware of the cultural differences in the process of learning and communication in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication.
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●9.7Linguistic Evidence of Cultural Differences II
In this section, we will continue to discuss cultural differences in language use. We will illustrate them in terms of privacy and taboos, rounding off numbers, words and cultural-specific connotations, cultural-related idioms,and proverbs and metaphors. As learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture, we, as English learners, should be aware of the cultural differences in the process of learning and communication in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication.
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●9.8Culture Contact, Cultural Overlap and Cultural Diffusion
In this section, we will start with a discussion of several cultural concepts: culture contact, cultural overlap and cultural diffusion. After that, we will conclude the whole chapter with illustration of the significance of cultural teaching and learning.
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第十章Language Acquisition
In this chapter, we will focus on language acquisition. We will provide tentative answers to some questions concerning how language is learned. Some theories of child language acquisition will be first introduced, then the Critical Period Hypothesis and learning environment will be discussed with exemplification, and finally the stages of language learning will be presented briefly.
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●10.1Theories of Child Language Acquisition
In this section, we will firstly make a brief introduction of language acquisition, and then three different theories concerning how language is learned, namely, the behaviorist, the innatist, and the interactionist views, are discussed. Language acquisition refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue. It seems that most children learn their native language very fast and with little effort. How do children accomplish their language learning? What enables children to learn words and string them together into meaningful sentences? What facilitates children to develop the grammatical system of their language? All these are closely related to the core issues in linguistic studies such as what language is, what language instinct is and how people acquire language.
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●10.2Cognitive Development in Child Language Development
In this section, we are going to focus on cognitive factors in child language development. Apart from some factors or variables in relation to child language acquisition, such as environmental factors and innate linguistic factors, the role of children’s cognitive development is also important because both their linguistic and non-linguistic abilities change dramatically in the early development. It seems that children’s cognitive development closely relates to their language development. We are going to explain it from two aspects. First, language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. Second, the cognitive factors determine how the children make sense of the linguistic system instead of what meanings the children perceive and express.
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●10.3Language Environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis
In this section, we are going to examine the role of the linguistic environment and discuss the Critical Period Hypothesis. The two factors, the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language, bear remarkable relevance to their language development. In behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and the necessary feedback. However, the innatist view calls for the quality of the language samples available in the linguistic environment. Age is another factor that is worth mentioning in first language acquisition. Both the strong version and the weak version of the Critical Period Hypothesis emphasize the role of age in learning the first language.
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●10.4Stages in Child Language Development
In this section, we will focus on the stages in child language development. We will briefly outline some main stages in children’s language development from the perspective of phonological development, vocabulary development, grammatical development, and pragmatic development.
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●10.5Atypical Development
In this section, we will briefly focus on some atypical development in the process of acquisition. It mainly includes hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, and dyslexia and dysgraphia.
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第十一章Second Language Acquisition
In this chapter, we will focus on second language acquisition. Second language acquisition refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. In this chapter some key notions and models will be introduced and discussed to shed some light on second/foreign language learning in general.
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●11.1Introduction
This section will provide a general introduction to second language acquisition (SLA) as a field of enquiry. Some key terms in this field including native language, target language, second language and foreign language will be firstly defined. Then it will be followed by the illustration of the connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition.
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●11.2Contrastive Analysis
In this section we will focus on contrastive analysis. Contrastive Analysis is a way of comparing languages, such as L1 and L2, in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. The goal of contrastive analysis is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn.
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●11.3Error Analysis
In this section we will focus on the use of error analysis as a tool for investigating how learners acquire a second language. Error analysis involves, independently or objectively, describing the learners’ interlanguage (that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself), then comparing the two forms to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, error analysis gives less consideration to learners’ native language. Linked with the division between competence and performance, errors and mistakes were further distinguished.
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●11.4Interlanguage
In this section, we are going to focus on the description of interlanguage. An overview of interlanguage making explicit its main characteristics will be provided. Interlanguage, the term coined by Selinker in 1972, refers to learners' independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the target language. It is imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner's native language either. What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence of the approximation from their first language to the target language.
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●11.5The Role of Native Language in Second Language Learning
In this section, we will talk about the role of native language in second language learning. In the heyday of behaviorism, people found the differences or similarities between native and target languages would either lead to positive transfer or negative transfer. Errors were mainly the result of transfer of first language “habits”. With the fade-out of behaviorism, the mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language transfer; transfer was not physical carry-over, but a kind of mental process. Recent studies have discovered the native language influences not only occur as direct linguistic reflexes at phonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical or discoursal levels but also directly reflect underlying principles of languages at the cognitive level.
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●11.6Krashen
In this section, we will talk about Krashen’s Hypotheses. Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses, namely, the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, and the natural order hypothesis. Among them, the acquisition-learning hypothesis and the input hypothesis are attracting considerable attention, so both of them will be our focus in the section. Acquisition and learning will be firstly differentiated, and then comprehensible input hypothesis or “i+1” input hypothesis will be explained, followed by some research comments on it.
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●11.7Individual Differences
In this section, we will focus on individual learner differences. As we know, people learn a second language at different rate with different attainments. The language learners differ in their time and efforts spent on learning, and most notably in such aspects as language aptitude, working memory, motivation, anxiety, willingness to communicate, learning strategies, age of acquisition, personality and so on. Some dimensions of individual differences will be well exploited.
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第十二章Language and Brain
Recent decades have witnessed a number of technological advances which have greatly facilitated the investigation of the human brain and language processing. To help you to get the basics of these new areas, this chapter will briefly introduce two sub-branches of linguistics, namely neurolinguistics and psycholinguistics. This first section will provide a brief survey of the brain structure and its function, the methods used in the study of the brain in terms of evidence for lateralization and the different types of language disturbance that result from the brain damage. The second section will introduce some methods employed by psycholinguists to probe language representation and processing in mind, the correspondence of theoretical linguistics and language processing, and Levelt’s model of language production.
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●12.1Neurolinguistics
Section 1 is further divided into three sub-sections:
12.1.1 “Structure and Function of the Human Brain”:This part will introduce the structure of the human brain, the function of each part, and the human distinctness in the animal world.
12.1.2 “Methods in the Brain Study and Evidence for Lateralization”: This part introduces some methods employed in the study of the brain and the evidence brought about by these methods for lateralization
12.1.3 “Aphasia”: By studying the aphasic symptoms, neurologist can identify the major components of language in the brain. There are many different types of aphasia. In this part, we will describe some of the more important ones, that is, Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia. -
●12.2Psycholinguistics
Section 2 is further divided into seven sub-sections:
12.2.1“Psycholinguistics and Field Work”: This part will introduce the study on Spoonerism.
12.2.2 and 12.2.3“Psycholinguistics and Experimental Methods” These methods include lexical decision and priming that are used to study how words are organized, accessed and represented in the mind.
12.2.4, 12.2.5 and 12.2.5 “Language Processing”: One of the psycholinguistic models of speech processing, cohort model, is also introduced. This part will answer the questions that whether selectional restrictions of affixes form part of the word-processing system, and whether the representation of multimorphemic words in the mind includes a representation of hierarchical structure. It also talks about a special module for sentence processing.
12.2.7 “Levelt's Model of Speech Production”: This part will present the most influential psycholinguistic model of speech production proposed by Levelt.
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第十三章Cognitive linguistics
In this section, we will briefly introduce the definition of cognitive linguistics and share the main topics of it which includes categories and categorization, conceptual metaphors, and conceptual metonymies.
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●13.1Cognitive Linguistics
In this section, we will briefly introduce the definition of cognitive linguistics, the leading members of this field and the three approaches of it.
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●13.2Categories and Categorization
In this section, we will learn something about classical categorization theory and the prototype category theory. We will focus on the knowledge of the latter one and an important concept “family resemblance”.
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●13.3Conceptual Metaphor
In this section, we will introduce one of the cognitive tools--conceptual metaphor, about its source domain, target domain and the mapping process. What's more, some main concepts of this cognitive tool are involved in this section, such as culture-dependent evaluations, rich mapping and lean mapping.
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●13.4Conceptual Metonymy
In this section, we will learn another cognitive tool, conceptual metonymy, about its source domain, target domain and the mapping process, and about its difference and similarity with metaphor.